1. supplement of gcc

1）preprocess

gcc -E 2.c -o 2.i
less 2.i

Main functions:
Handle preprocessing instructions starting with #,such as:
#include insert the header file content into the code
#define → Replace Macro definitions
#ifdef / #ifndef → Conditional compilation
Delete comments, expand macros, and generate pure source code files (2.i)

2）compiling

gcc -S 2.c -o 2.s

Main functions:
Translate the c code into assembly code
Check grammar errors and optimize some of the code
Generate the assembly file 2.s (human readable,but close to machine language)

3）assembly

gcc -c 2.c -o 2.o
hexdump 2.o | less

Main function:
Convert the .s assembly file into a target file .o is in binary format and contains machine instructions,but it cannot be run independently yet.

4）linking

gcc 2.c -o a.out
./a.out

Main functions:
Connect multiple object files(.o) and libraries(such as libc)together.
Solve the address reference problem of function calls.
Generate the final executable file(default name :a.out)

5）print

1.run ./a.out on the terminal
2.Load a .out from the hard disk into memory
3.Direct reading and writing between the cpu and memory.Code and data will be executed by the cpu.

4.Eventually,the data will be written to the hard disk.

2. Principle of Computer

1） Basic Data Units

Unit	Name	Abbr.	Relation	Description
bit	Bit	b	Smallest information unit	Represents 0 or 1
byte	Byte	B	1 B = 8 bit	One byte can store one English letter or half a Chinese character

---

2） Computer Storage Units (Binary Measurement System)

Computers use powers of 2 to represent capacity since all operations are based on binary logic.

Unit	Abbr.	Equivalent Relation	Power of 2	Pronunciation
1 KB	Kilobyte	1 KB = 1024 B	2¹⁰ B	kilo-byte
1 MB	Megabyte	1 MB = 1024 KB	2²⁰ B	mega-byte
1 GB	Gigabyte	1 GB = 1024 MB	2³⁰ B	giga-byte
1 TB	Terabyte	1 TB = 1024 GB	2⁴⁰ B	tera-byte
1 PB	Petabyte	1 PB = 1024 TB	2⁵⁰ B	peta-byte

---

3） Number System Conversion

Number System	Digits Used	Rule	Example
Binary	0, 1	Carry every 2	1, 10, 11, 100…
Octal	0–7	Carry every 8	7, 10, 11, 12…
Decimal	0–9	Carry every 10	9, 10, 11…
Hexadecimal	0–9, a–f	Carry every 16	9, a, b, c…

Decimal	Binary	Octal	Hexadecimal
0	0000	0	0
1	0001	1	1
2	0010	2	2
3	0011	3	3
4	0100	4	4
5	0101	5	5
6	0110	6	6
7	0111	7	7
8	1000	10	8
9	1001	11	9
10	1010	12	a
11	1011	13	b
12	1100	14	c
13	1101	15	d
14	1110	16	e
15	1111	17	f

---

4）Basic Data Types in C

Category	Keyword	Description	Size
Integer types	short, int, long	Represent whole numbers	short: 2B, int: 4B, long: 4B or 8B
Character type	char	Store a single character (actually stored as integer)	1B
Floating-point types	float, double	Represent decimal numbers	float: 4B, double: 8B
Boolean type	_Bool or bool (need <stdbool.h>)	Represent true (1) or false (0)	1B
Void type	void	Indicates no return value or no parameter	None

In C language:

• short == signed short
• int == signed int
• long == signed long
• Prefixing with unsigned means the variable can only store non-negative integers.

---

5） Sign Representation: Original Code, One’s Complement, Two’s Complement

Type	Description
Positive number’s complement	Same as its original code
Negative number’s complement	Original → Invert bits (one’s complement) → Add 1

Notes

• The highest bit is the sign bit
  • 0 → positive
  • 1 → negative
• The remaining bits store the magnitude.

Example in 8-bit system:
+5 (original) = 0000 0101  
-5 (original) = 1000 0101  
-5 (one’s complement) = 1111 1010  
-5 (two’s complement) = 1111 1011

---

---

3. Memory and size

1）common data types in 64-bit operating systems

type integer

data type	size	numerical range	explaination
unsigned short	2	0 ~ 65,535（2¹⁶ − 1）	all 16 bits are data bits
short	2	−32,768 ~ 32,767（−2¹⁵ ~ 2¹⁵ − 1）	the most significant bit is the sign bit，15 bits are data bits
unsigned int	4	0 ~ 4,294,967,295（2³² − 1）	all 32 bits are data bits
int	4	−2,147,483,648 ~ 2,147,483,647（−2³¹ ~ 2³¹ − 1）	the most significant bit is the sign bit，31 bits are data bits
unsigned long	8	0 ~ 2⁶⁴ − 1	64 bits are data bits
long	8	−2⁶³ ~ 2⁶³ − 1	the most significant bit is the sign bit，63 bits are data bits

---

character types

data type	space size	numerical range	explaination
char	1	−128 ~ 127	the most significant bit is the sign bit（1 bit），the remaining 7bits are data bits
unsigned char	1	0 ~ 255	8 bits are data bits

explanation

1. Chararter types are essentially integer types.

2. Character literals such as ‘a’ and ‘b’ represent individual chararters and can be input from the keyboard(letters ,symbols)

3. The first 32 chararters in the ASCII table are control characters(invisible).

4. example:

   'A' → BIN：01000001 → DEC：65
   

5. command for viewing ASCII table:

   man ascii
   

---

floating- point type

data type	space size	numerical range	compositin and structure	significant digits
float	4	±3.4 × 10⁻³⁸ ~ ±3.4 × 10³⁸	sign bit(1 bit) + index(8 bit) + mantissa(23 bit)	6 ~ 7 bits
double	8	±1.07 × 10⁻³⁰⁸ ~ ±1.07 × 10³⁰⁸	sign bit(1 bit) + index(11 bit) + mantissa(52 bit)	15 ~ 16 bits

IEEE 754 standard

• The most significant bit is the sign bit
• The middle part is the index
• The tail is the last digit(significant figure)

---

void type

purpose	example
a function without a return value	void func(void);
untyped pointer	void* p;

explaination：

1. void indicates ‘untyped’
2. It is often used for function parameters,return values and generic pointers.

---

boolean type

data type	data range	explaination
_Bool / bool（ #include <stdbool.h>）	true (1) / false (0)	logical truth/falsehood

examples：

#include <stdbool.h>
bool result = 5 < 3;   // result = false (0)

---

4. Constants, Variables, and Expressions

1) Constants

Objects that do not change during program execution and can be used directly in code.

1. Integer Constants

123;     // int
-123;    // int
0123;    // int, octal
0x123;   // int, hexadecimal

123u;    // unsigned int
123U;
123l;    // long
123L;
123ul;   // unsigned long
123UL;

2. Floating-Point Constants

3.1415;     // double
3.14f;      // float
3.14e15;    // 3.14 × 10^15
3.14e-15;   // 3.14 × 10^-15
3.14E15;    // 3.14 × 10^15

3. Character Constants

Represented using single quotes ’ '.

'a';
'b';
'c';
'!';
'#';
' ';    // space
'\'';   // single quote (escaped)
'\\';   // backslash
'\n';   // newline
'\t';   // tab
'\r';   // carriage return

4. String Constants

Represented using double quotes " ".
In C, every string literal must end with a null terminator ‘\0’.

"hello";     // actually stored as: 'h' 'e' 'l' 'l' 'o' '\0'
"hi\0";      // occupies 3 bytes
"a";         // 'a' '\0'
"hello\0";   // equivalent to "hello"
"hello0";    // includes character '0' (ASCII 48), not '\0'
"hi\055aa";  // octal escape example

---

2) Defined Constants

Defined using the macro definition directive.

#define PI (3.14)
#define P2 (4.2 + 3)

Macro Definition Notes

1. Improves readability and maintainability — change once, update globally.

2. Always use parentheses around macro expressions to prevent calculation errors:

   12 * P2 != 12 * (4.2 + 3);
   

3. Use uppercase names for macros (e.g., MAX_SIZE, PI).

---

3. Variables

Quantities whose values can change during program execution.

1. Variable Declaration Format

data_type variable_name;
int a;

2. Naming Rules (Identifiers)

1. Must consist of letters, digits, and underscores, and cannot start with a digit.

   int a, b, _ab;   // valid
   int 123a;        // invalid
   

2. Cannot use keywords or system function names.

3. Use meaningful names:

   int sum;
   int age;
   int zhangsan_age;
   int lisi_age;
   

Each variable occupies memory — the variable name is an alias for that memory space.

---

4) Expressions

Combinations of variables, constants, or function calls connected by operators.

int num = 20;

1 + 2;        // 3
num + 20;     // 40
num + num;    // 40

Expression Characteristics

1. Every expression has a type.
2. Every expression has a value (result).

---

5. Mixed Data Type Operations

1. Implicit Type Conversion

• If operands have the same type → result is of that type.
• If different types → C automatically converts to the higher precision type.
• Floating-point > Integer.
• double > float > long > int > short > char.
• Unsigned types > Signed types.
• char and short are automatically promoted to int.
• float is often promoted to double in expressions.

2. Explicit Type Conversion

Use the type cast operator (type):

int a = 10;
float b = 3.5;
int result = (int)b + a;  // forcefully convert b to int

---

6. Operators

1. Arithmetic Operators

Operator	Meaning
+	Addition
-	Subtraction
*	Multiplication
/	Division
%	Modulus (remainder)
++	Increment
–	Decrement